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Showing posts with label Dopamine. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Dopamine. Show all posts

Tuesday, 23 April 2024

Maternal Agmatine or Choline to prevent autism? International brain pH project. Androgen levels in autism spectrum disorders. Apigenin works for BTBR mice. Auditory hypersensitivity, myelin and Nav1.2 channels. Dopamine transporter binding abnormalities and self-injury

 


Shutting the stable door after the horse has bolted


Today’s post is a summary of what I found interesting in the latest research.  Many items have been touched on previously.

The topic of maternal treatment to prevent future autism did come up in some recent comments on this blog. Two of the recent papers cover this very subject. One uses agmatine, from my autism PolyPill therapy, while the other used choline.

Auditory sound sensitivity is a complex subject and today we see the potential role impaired myelination and Nav1.2 ion channels can play.

A Chinese study reconfirms the elevated level of androgen hormones in autism.  

Apigenin which was covered in an earlier post is shown to help “autistic” mice in the popular BTBR model. This is a model where the corpus callosum is entirely absent.

Self-injury is a recuring nightmare for many with severe autism and today we look at a possible correlation with dopamine transporter binding abnormalities.

We start with easier subject matter and leave the hard parts for later in the post.


Preventing future autism

It may seem like too late to be talking about preventing autism, but it is a recurring subject. Today we have two new ideas that have appeared in the literature, and both are very simple. One is choline and other agmatine; both are used in the treatment of already existing autism.

 

Maternal choline to prevent autism

“maternal choline supplementation may be sufficient to blunt some of the behavioral and neurobiological impacts of inflammatory exposures in utero, indicating that it may be a cheap, safe, and effective intervention for neurodevelopmental disorders.” 

 

Maternal choline supplementation modulates cognition and induces anti-inflammatory signaling in the prefrontal cortex of adolescent rats exposed to maternal immune activation


Maternal infection has long been described as a risk factor for neurodevelopmental disorders, especially autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and schizophrenia. Although many pathogens do not cross the placenta and infect the developing fetus directly, the maternal immune response to them is sufficient to alter fetal neurodevelopment, a phenomenon termed maternal immune activation (MIA). Low maternal choline is also a risk factor for neurodevelopmental disorders, and most pregnant people do not receive enough of it. In addition to its role in neurodevelopment, choline is capable of inducing anti-inflammatory signaling through a nicotinic pathway. Therefore, it was hypothesized that maternal choline supplementation would blunt the neurodevelopmental impact of MIA in offspring through long- term instigation of cholinergic anti-inflammatory signaling.

To model MIA in rats, the viral mimetic polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)) was used to elicit a maternal antiviral innate immune response in dams both with and without choline supplementation. Offspring were reared to both early and late adolescent stages (postnatal days 28 and 50, respectively), where cognition and anxiety-related behaviors were examined. After behavioral testing, animals were euthanized, and their prefrontal cortices (PFCs) were collected for analysis. MIA offspring demonstrated sex-specific patterns of altered cognition and repetitive behaviors, which were modulated by maternal choline supplementation. Choline supplementation also bolstered anti-inflammatory signaling in the PFCs of MIA animals at both early and late adolescent stages. These findings suggest that maternal choline supplementation may be sufficient to blunt some of the behavioral and neurobiological impacts of inflammatory exposures in utero, indicating that it may be a cheap, safe, and effective intervention for neurodevelopmental disorders.

 

Prenatal Agmatine to prevent autism

Agmatine is a cheap bodybuilder supplement also used in psychiatry that has been extensively covered in this blog. Here we see how in a popular mouse model it can prevent autism.


The prenatal use of agmatine prevents social behavior deficits in VPA-exposed mice by activating the ERK/CREB/BDNF signaling pathway


Background: According to reports, prenatal exposure to valproic acid can induce autism spectrum disorder (ASD)-like symptoms in both humans and rodents. However, the exact cause and therapeutic method of ASD is not fully understood. Agmatine (AGM) is known for its neuroprotective effects, and this study aims to explore whether giving agmatine hydrochloride before birth can prevent autism-like behaviors in mouse offspring exposed prenatally to valproic acid.

Methods: In this study, we investigated the effects of AGM prenatally on valproate (VPA)-exposed mice. We established a mouse model of ASD by prenatally administering VPA. From birth to weaning, we evaluated mouse behavior using the marble burying test, open-field test, and three-chamber social interaction test on male offspring.

Results: The results showed prenatal use of AGM relieved anxiety and hyperactivity behaviors as well as ameliorated sociability of VPA-exposed mice in the marble burying test, open-field test, and three-chamber social interaction test, and this protective effect might be attributed to the activation of the ERK/CREB/BDNF signaling pathway.

Conclusion: Therefore, AGM can effectively reduce the likelihood of offspring developing autism to a certain extent when exposed to VPA during pregnancy, serving as a potential therapeutic drug.


This builds on an earlier paper that first identified the benefit.

 

Agmatine rescues autistic behaviors in the valproic acid-induced animal model of autism

  

Highlights

                  Single treatment of agmatine rescues social impairment in the VPA-induced animal model of autism.

                  Effect of agmatine in social improvement in the VPA model is induced from agmatine itself, not its metabolite.

                  Agmatine rescues repetitive and hyperactive behavior, and seizure susceptibility in the VPA model.

                  Overly activated ERK1/2 in the brain of the VPA model is relieved by agmatine.

 

Apigenin


50mg of Apigenin

1g of dried parsley
15-20g of dried chamomile flowers

 

I have previously written about Apigenin, which is an OTC supplement. There has been another paper recently published about it. There is a logical connection with the maternal choline therapy from above.

 

What does Apigenin have in common with Choline?  α7-nAChRs

Choline is interesting because it acts as both a precursor for acetylcholine synthesis and it is a neuromodulator itself.

Choline is activates α7-nAChRs, alpha-7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

These receptors are extremely important in learning and sensory processing.  They also play a key role in inflammation and signaling via the vagus nerve.

Apigenin is a flavonoid found in many plants, fruits, and vegetables. It has been shown to have a number of health benefits, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. Apigenin has also been shown to interact with α7-nAChRs.

Studies have shown that apigenin can:

Enhance α7-nAChR function: Apigenin has been shown to increase the activity of α7-nAChRs. This may be due to its ability to bind to a specific site on the receptor.

Protect α7-nAChRs from damage: Apigenin may also help to protect α7-nAChRs from damage caused by oxidative stress.

 

Apigenin Alleviates Autistic-like Stereotyped Repetitive Behaviors and Mitigates Brain Oxidative Stress in Mice


Studying the involvement of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), specifically α7-nAChRs, in neuropsychiatric brain disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has gained a growing interest. The flavonoid apigenin (APG) has been confirmed in its pharmacological action as a positive allosteric modulator of α7-nAChRs. However, there is no research describing the pharmacological potential of APG in ASD. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of the subchronic systemic treatment of APG (10–30 mg/kg) on ASD-like repetitive and compulsive-like behaviors and oxidative stress status in the hippocampus and cerebellum in BTBR mice, utilizing the reference drug aripiprazole (ARP, 1 mg/kg, i.p.). BTBR mice pretreated with APG (20 mg/kg) or ARP (1 mg/g, i.p.) displayed significant improvements in the marble-burying test (MBT), cotton-shredding test (CST), and self-grooming test (SGT) (all p < 0.05). However, a lower dose of APG (10 mg/kg, i.p.) failed to modulate behaviors in the MBT or SGT, but significantly attenuated the increased shredding behaviors in the CST of tested mice. Moreover, APG (10–30 mg/kg, i.p.) and ARP (1 mg/kg) moderated the disturbed levels of oxidative stress by mitigating the levels of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the hippocampus and cerebellum of treated BTBR mice. In patch clamp studies in hippocampal slices, the potency of choline (a selective agonist of α7-nAChRs) in activating fast inward currents was significantly potentiated following incubation with APG. Moreover, APG markedly potentiated the choline-induced enhancement of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents. The observed results propose the potential therapeutic use of APG in the management of ASD. However, further preclinical investigations in additional models and different rodent species are still needed to confirm the potential relevance of the therapeutic use of APG in ASD.

  

Altered acidity (pH) levels inside the brain

I found it intriguing that a large study has examined the altered acidity (pH) levels inside the brain of those with neurological disorders.

For all the disorders other than autism there was a clear pattern of low pH, which means increased acidity.

For autism certain autism models exhibited decreased pH and increased lactate levels, but others showed the opposite pattern, reflecting subpopulations within autism.

Altered brain energy metabolism is an acknowledged feature of autism, so we should not be surprised to find altered levels of acidity.

The easy reading version:

 

Brain Acidity Linked With Multiple Neurological Disorders

 

The study itself:

Large-scale animal model study uncovers altered brain pH and lactate levels as a transdiagnostic endophenotype of neuropsychiatric disorders involving cognitive impairment

Increased levels of lactate, an end-product of glycolysis, have been proposed as a potential surrogate marker for metabolic changes during neuronal excitation. These changes in lactate levels can result in decreased brain pH, which has been implicated in patients with various neuropsychiatric disorders. We previously demonstrated that such alterations are commonly observed in five mouse models of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and autism, suggesting a shared endophenotype among these disorders rather than mere artifacts due to medications or agonal state. However, there is still limited research on this phenomenon in animal models, leaving its generality across other disease animal models uncertain. Moreover, the association between changes in brain lactate levels and specific behavioral abnormalities remains unclear. To address these gaps, the International Brain pH Project Consortium investigated brain pH and lactate levels in 109 strains/conditions of 2,294 animals with genetic and other experimental manipulations relevant to neuropsychiatric disorders. Systematic analysis revealed that decreased brain pH and increased lactate levels were common features observed in multiple models of depression, epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, and some additional schizophrenia models. While certain autism models also exhibited decreased pH and increased lactate levels, others showed the opposite pattern, potentially reflecting subpopulations within the autism spectrum. Furthermore, utilizing large-scale behavioral test battery, a multivariate cross-validated prediction analysis demonstrated that poor working memory performance was predominantly associated with increased brain lactate levels. Importantly, this association was confirmed in an independent cohort of animal models. Collectively, these findings suggest that altered brain pH and lactate levels, which could be attributed to dysregulated excitation/inhibition balance, may serve as transdiagnostic endophenotypes of debilitating neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by cognitive impairment, irrespective of their beneficial or detrimental nature.

In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that altered brain pH and lactate levels are commonly observed in animal models of SZ, BD, ID, ASD, AD, and other neuropsychiatric disorders. These findings provide further evidence supporting the hypothesis that altered brain pH and lactate levels are not mere artifacts, such as those resulting from medication confounding, but are rather involved in the underlying pathophysiology of some patients with neuropsychiatric disorders. Altered brain energy metabolism or neural hyper- or hypoactivity leading to abnormal lactate levels and pH may serve as a potential therapeutic targets for neuropsychiatric disorders

 

Why would the brain be acidic (reduced pH)?

To function optimally mitochondria need adequate oxygen and glucose. When performance is impaired, for example due to the lack of Complex 1, mitochondria switch from OXPHOS (oxidative phosphorylation) to fermentation to produce energy (ATP). Lactic acid is the byproduct and this will lower pH.

 

Does brain pH matter?

It does matter and is linked to cognitive impairments, headaches, seizures etc.

Many enzymes in the brain rely on a specific pH range to function properly. Deviations from the ideal pH can hinder their activity, impacting various neurochemical processes essential for brain function.

Some ion channels are pH sensitive.

 

Chemical buffers in the brain aim to regulate pH in the brain

·       Carbonic Acid/Bicarbonate Buffer System: Similar to the blood, the brain utilizes this system to regulate pH.

·   Organic Phosphates: These molecules, like creatine phosphate, can act as buffers in the brain by binding or releasing hydrogen ions.

These buffering systems work together to maintain a tightly controlled pH range in both the blood (around 7.35-7.45) and the brain (slightly more acidic than blood, around 7.0-7.3). Even slight deviations from this ideal range can have significant consequences for cellular function.

  

Androgen Levels in Autism

Androgens are male hormones like testosterone, DHEA and DHT, but females have them too, just at lower levels.

Drugs that reduce the level of these hormones are called antiandrogens.

Finasteride reduces DHT and is used to treat hair loss in men as Propecia. This drug was trialed in women, but failed to show a benefit over the placebo.

The main use of Finasteride is for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in older men.

Women sometimes take antiandrogens like Spironolactone to control acne.

Numerous studies have show elevated levels of males hormones in both males and females with autism.

A recent paper was published on this very subject: 


Androgen levels in autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background:

Accumulating evidence suggests that the autism spectrum disorder (ASD) population exhibits altered hormone levels, including androgens. However, studies on the regulation of androgens, such as testosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), in relation to sex differences in individuals with ASD are limited and inconsistent. We conducted the systematic review with meta-analysis to quantitatively summarise the blood, urine, or saliva androgen data between individuals with ASD and controls.

Methods:

A systematic search was conducted for eligible studies published before 16 January 2023 in six international and two Chinese databases. We computed summary statistics with a random-effects model. Publication bias was assessed using funnel plots and heterogeneity using I 2 statistics. Subgroup analysis was performed by age, sex, sample source, and measurement method to explain the heterogeneity.

Results:

17 case-control studies (individuals with ASD, 825; controls, 669) were assessed. Androgen levels were significantly higher in individuals with ASD than that in controls (SMD: 0.27, 95% CI: 0.06-0.48, P=0.01). Subgroup analysis showed significantly elevated levels of urinary total testosterone, urinary DHEA, and free testosterone in individuals with ASD. DHEA level was also significantly elevated in males with ASD. Androgen levels, especially free testosterone, may be elevated in individuals with ASD and DHEA levels may be specifically elevated in males.

 

By coincidence I was just sent the paper below, showing the benefit of Finasteride in one model of autism. 

Therapeutic effect of finasteride through its antiandrogenic and antioxidant role in a propionic acid-induced autism model: Demonstrated by behavioral tests, histological findings and MR spectroscopy

 

I do recall I think it was Tyler, long ago, writing a comment about the potential to use Finasteride in autism.

Some very expensive antiandrogens have been used in autism and this became rather controversial.

We saw in earlier posts that RORα/RORalpha/RORA is a key mechanism where the balance between male and female hormones controls some key autism gene.

 


The schematic illustrates a mechanism through which the observed reduction in RORA in autistic brain may lead to increased testosterone levels through downregulation of aromatase. Through AR, testosterone negatively modulates RORA, whereas estrogen upregulates RORA through ER.

 androgen receptor = AR             estrogen receptor = ER


Cerebellum and neurodevelopmental disorders: RORα is a unifying force

Errors of cerebellar development are increasingly acknowledged as risk factors for neuro-developmental disorders (NDDs), such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and schizophrenia. Evidence has been assembled from cerebellar abnormalities in autistic patients, as well as a range of genetic mutations identified in human patients that affect the cerebellar circuit, particularly Purkinje cells, and are associated with deficits of motor function, learning and social behavior; traits that are commonly associated with autism and schizophrenia. However, NDDs, such as ASD and schizophrenia, also include systemic abnormalities, e.g., chronic inflammation, abnormal circadian rhythms etc., which cannot be explained by lesions that only affect the cerebellum. Here we bring together phenotypic, circuit and structural evidence supporting the contribution of cerebellar dysfunction in NDDs and propose that the transcription factor Retinoid-related Orphan Receptor alpha (RORα) provides the missing link underlying both cerebellar and systemic abnormalities observed in NDDs. We present the role of RORα in cerebellar development and how the abnormalities that occur due to RORα deficiency could explain NDD symptoms. We then focus on how RORα is linked to NDDs, particularly ASD and schizophrenia, and how its diverse extra-cerebral actions can explain the systemic components of these diseases. Finally, we discuss how RORα-deficiency is likely a driving force for NDDs through its induction of cerebellar developmental defects, which in turn affect downstream targets, and its regulation of extracerebral systems, such as inflammation, circadian rhythms, and sexual dimorphism.

  



Figure 2. RORα regulates multiple genes and plays extensive roles in cerebellar development. (A) Key stages of PC development which are regulated by RORα. These are at all stages from embryonic development to adult maintenance. (B) A schema showing the central role of RORα in multiple cellular processes, that are modified in NDDs. When RORα is reduced (central red circle), its regulation of gene transcription is altered. Here we include the known RORα target genes that are also involved in NDDs. The effects in red illustrate the induced abnormalities according to the direction of change: estrogen and PC development are reduced, circadian rhythms are perturbed, but inflammation and ROS are increased.

 

Sound sensitivity in autism and Nav1.2

At this point today’s post does get complicated.

Researchers have learnt that the sodium ion channel Nav1.2 (expressed by the SCN2A gene) can play a key role in hypersensitivity to sound in autism.

Lack of these ion channels in the cells that produce myelin produces “faulty auditory circuits”, with too much sound sensitivity.

An impairment in myelin structure can trigger cascading effects on neuronal excitability. Sound sensitivity is just one example.

There is a great deal of evidence that genes involved in myelination are miss-expressed in many models of autism. Imaging studies have shown variations in myelination.

 

Scn2a deletion disrupts oligodendroglia function: Implication for myelination, neural circuitry, and auditory hypersensitivity in ASD

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by a complex etiology, with genetic determinants significantly influencing its manifestation. Among these, the Scn2a gene emerges as a pivotal player, crucially involved in both glial and neuronal functionality. This study elucidates the underexplored roles of Scn2a in oligodendrocytes, and its subsequent impact on myelination and auditory neural processes. The results reveal a nuanced interplay between oligodendrocytes and axons, where Scn2a deletion causes alterations in the intricate process of myelination. This disruption, in turn, instigates changes in axonal properties and neuronal activities at the single cell level. Furthermore, oligodendrocyte-specific Scn2a deletion compromises the integrity of neural circuitry within auditory pathways, leading to auditory hypersensitivity—a common sensory abnormality observed in ASD. Through transcriptional profiling, we identified alterations in the expression of myelin-associated genes, highlighting the cellular consequences engendered by Scn2a deletion. In summary, the findings provide unprecedented insights into the pathway from Scn2a deletion in oligodendrocytes to sensory abnormalities in ASD, underscoring the integral role of Scn2a-mediated myelination in auditory responses. This research thereby provides novel insights into the intricate tapestry of genetic and cellular interactions inherent in ASD.

Therefore, our study underscores the region-specific relationship between myelin integrity and ion channel distribution in the developing brain. We emphasize that any disturbances in myelin structure can trigger cascading effects on neuronal excitability and synaptic function in the CNS, especially at nerve terminals in the auditory nervous system. 

How are Nav1.2  channels, encoded by Scn2a, involved in OL maturation and myelination? One possible explanation is that the activation of Nav1.2 may be pivotal for triggering Cav channel activation, leading to a Ca2+ flux within OLs, which is involved in OL proliferation, migration, and differentiation. Specifically, Ca2+ signaling facilitated by R-type Cav in myelin sheaths at paranodal regions, might influence the growth of myelin sheaths. To activate high-voltage activated calcium channels such as L- and R-Type efficiently, the activation of Nav1.2 channels should be required for depolarizing OL membrane to around -30 mV. Consequently, the synergic interplay between Nav1.2 and Cav channels could amplify calcium signaling in OLs, initiating the differentiation and maturation processes. 

Defects in myelination can create a spectrum of auditory dysfunctions, including hypersensitivity. Our results demonstrated how OL-Scn2a is involved in the relationship between myelin defects, neuronal excitability, and auditory pathology in ASD, potentially paving the way for targeted therapeutic interventions.

 

One subject that some people write to me repeatedly about is self-injurious behavior, so I took note of the paper below.  

Dopamine Transporter Binding Abnormalities Are Associated with Self-injurious Behavior in Autism Spectrum Disorder 

Utilizing single-photon emission computed tomography dopamine transporter scans (DaTscan) we examined whether imaging markers of the dopaminergic system are related to repetitive behaviors as assessed by the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised in ASD.

Background: 

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by impairments in social communication, and restricted repetitive behaviors. Self-injurious behaviors are often observed in individuals with ASD. Dopamine is critical in reward, memory, and motor control. Some propose the nigrostriatal motor pathway may be altered in ASD, and alterations in dopamine are reported in some rodent models based on specific ASD genes. Additionally, repetitive behaviors may to be related to reward systems. Therefore, we examined the dopaminergic system, using DaTscans, to explore its relationship with measures of repetitive behavior in a clinical ASD population.

Design/Methods: 

Twelve participants (aged 18–27) with ASD were recruited from the Thompson Center for Autism and Neurodevelopment and completed the Repetitive Behaviors Scale - Revised (RBS-R). Of the 12 participants, 10 underwent a 45-minute DaTscan. ANOVA was used to compare the dopamine imaging findings with the overall total RB scores on the RBS-R. while other domains of the RBS-R were also investigated in an exploratory manner.

Results: 

Five of the participants had regional deficits in dopamine transporter binding in the striatum on DaTscan. Individuals with deficits on the DaTscan had significantly higher Self-Injurious Endorsed Scores than those with normal scans.

Conclusions: 

Half of the DaTscans obtained were determined abnormal, and abnormal scans were associated with greater endorsing of self-injurious behavior. Larger samples are needed to confirm this, and determine the impact of laterality of abnormalities, but this preliminary work suggests a potential role the dopaminergic system in self-injurious RBs. Elucidation of this relationship may be important for future interventional outcomes, with potential impact on targeted treatment, as the only currently approved medications for ASD are atypical neuroleptics.

 

Dopamine transporter binding abnormalities refer to deviations from the normal levels of dopamine transporter (DAT) in the brain. DAT is a protein on the surface of cells that reabsorbs dopamine from the synapse, regulating its availability.

Imaging techniques like DAT scans (dopamine transporter scans) are used to assess DAT levels. These scans measure the binding of radiotracers to DAT, with lower binding indicating reduced DAT levels.

Dopamine transporter binding abnormalities have been linked to various neurological and psychiatric conditions, including:

                 Parkinson's disease: Degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra, a hallmark of Parkinson's disease, leads to a significant decrease in dopamine levels and DAT binding in the striatum.

                 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Some studies suggest that individuals with ADHD may have abnormal DAT function, though the nature of the abnormality (increased or decreased DAT) is debated.

                 Autism spectrum disorder (ASD): Research suggests that a subgroup of individuals with ASD may have DAT abnormalities, potentially linked to repetitive behaviors and social difficulties.

                 Addiction: Dopamine plays a central role in reward and motivation. Drugs like cocaine and methamphetamine can cause long-term changes in DAT function, potentially contributing to addiction.

DAT binding abnormalities may not always translate to functional impairments.

 

Treatment options for DAT binding abnormalities

Unfortunately, medications that directly target Dopamine Transporter (DAT) binding abnormalities do not exist.

In Parkinson's disease the goal is to increase dopamine levels in the brain. Medications like levodopa, a dopamine precursor, or dopamine agonists (drugs that mimic dopamine) are used.

  

Conclusion

It certainly is not easy to figure out how to treat autism and its troubling symptoms like self-injury. Our reader currently trying to make sure his second child does not have severe autism is wise to invest his time now.

Today we added agmatine and choline to our list of preventative strategies to consider.

As regards strategies to treat autism in children and adults, we see that the research very often is repeating what has already been published over the past two decades.

Ion channels do seem to be central to understanding and treating autism.




Sunday, 26 February 2017

Secondary Monoamine Neurotransmitter Disorders in Autism – Treatment with 5-HTP and levodopa/carbidopa?











This post is about monoamine neurotransmitter disorders in Autism, that are usually a down-stream consequence of other miscellaneous dysfunctions, which makes them “secondary” dysfunctions.

There was a post on this blog way back in 2013 on catecholamines:



Classical monoamine is a broader term and encompasses:-

       ·          Classical Tryptamines:


Drugs used to increase or reduce the effect of monoamines are sometimes used to treat patients with psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia.

This blog does go on rather ad nauseam about histamine, so today it will skip over it.  It does not cause autism, but it certainly can make it much worse in some people.

Tryptophan is a precursor to the neurotransmitters serotonin and melatonin.  For years it has been known that odd things are going on in some people with autism regarding tryptophan, serotonin and indeed melatonin. This research does not really lead you anywhere.

Other than being converted to serotonin and melatonin, tryptophan has the potential to be converted in the gut into some very good things and some bad ones; this all depends on what bacteria are present. People lucky enough to have Clostridium sporogenes will produce a super potent, but apparently very safe, antioxidant called 3-Indolepropionic acid (IPA), which is seen as an Alzheimer’s  therapy.  To be effective you would need a constant supply of IPA, and that is exactly what you get from the right bacteria living in your gut.

Some people with autism have high levels of serotonin in their blood and so do their parent(s). It is known that in the brain many people with autism have low levels of serotonin.  Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain this using the body’s feedback loops, including mother to child.

Many people with autism take 5-HTP which is an  intermediate in the synthesis of both serotonin and melatonin from tryptophan.

Serotonin itself does not cross the blood brain barrier (BBB).

Too much serotonin in your brain has a negative effect and so taking too much 5-HTP supplement produces negative effects.

Many people take melatonin at small doses for sleep. At larger doses it has many other beneficial effects that range from resolving GI problems to reducing oxidative stress in mitochondria. 

Of the Catecholamines, it is dopamine that gets the most attention in neuro-psychiatric disorders and schizophrenia in particular.

There is a dopamine hypothesis for schizophrenia, but there is also a glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia. 





If you read the research, it is actually ADHD that has the strongest connection to dopamine.  When you look closer still, you will see that even that connection is quite weak.

The conclusion is that ADHD, just like autism and schizophrenia is usually multigenic, meaning that numerous little things went awry, rather than one single dysfunction.

Tourette's syndrome and related tic disorders may be associated with either too much dopamine or overly sensitive dopamine receptors. 

It is fair to say that secondary monoamine neurotransmitter disorders can occur in autism, ADHD and indeed schizophrenia.

There is a long list of primary monoamine neurotransmitter disorders and much is known about them.


Monoamine Neurotransmitter Disorders  

I found an excellent paper that tells you pretty much all you could want to know about monoamine neurotransmitter disorders.  It also has nice graphics to explain what is going on.

Most people with autism are unlikely to have a primary disorder, but if they did, treating it should have a big impact on them.







BH4 =tetrahydrobiopterin. TH-D=tyrosine hydroxylase deficiency. AADC-D=aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency. DTDS=dopamine transporter deficiency syndrome. PLP-DE=pyridoxal-phosphate-dependent epilepsy. P-DE=pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy. AD GTPCH-D=autosomal dominant GTP cyclohydrolase 1 deficiency. SR-D=sepiapterin reductase deficiency. AR GTPCH-D=autosomal recessive GTP cyclohydrolase 1 deficiency. PTPS-D=6-pyruvoyltetrahydropterin synthase deficiency. DHPR-D=dihydropteridine reductase deficiency. HIE=hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy. PKAN=pantothenate kinase associated neurodegeneration. DNRD=dopa non-responsive dystonia. PKD=paroxysmal kinesogenic dyskinesia.


People with a secondary disorder would typically be identified by testing their spinal fluid for the metabolites of the monoamine.  So for serotonin you measure  5-HIAA (5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid) and for dopamine you measure  HVA (homovanillic acid).







Figure 2: The monoamine neurotransmitter biosynthesis pathway BH4 is synthesized in four enzymatic steps from GTP. BH4 is a necessary cofactor for TrpH and TH, the rate limiting enzymes in monoamine synthesis. Tryptophan is converted to 5-HTP by TrpH. Tyrosine is converted to L-dopa by TH. The conversion of 5-HTP to serotonin and of L-dopa to dopamine is catalyzed by AADC and its cofactor PLP.  When BH4 acts as a cofactor for TH and TrpH, it is converted to PCBD, which in turn is converted to BH4 (in the BH4 regeneration pathway) by a two-step process involving PCD and DHPR. After synthesis, uptake of monoamine neurotransmitters into the synaptic secretory vesicles requires the vesicular monoamine transporter VMAT (not shown).⁶ After synaptic transmission, serotonin and dopamine are metabolised through similar pathways, which involve MAO enzymes and COMT. Presynaptic reuptake of the monoamines is facilitated by DAT and SERT (not shown).⁷ Metabolic pathway of BH4 synthesis is shown in light blue, monoamine synthesis in light green, monoamine catabolism in dark blue, and BH4 regeneration in red. The biogenic amines are illustrated in light green circles and the cofactors (BH4 and PLP) are represented by light blue circles. Enzymes in the monoamine neurotransmitter pathway are underlined. GTPCH=GTP cyclohydrolase 1. H₂NP₃=dihydroneopterin triphosphate. PTPS=6-pyruvoyltetrahydropterin synthase. 6-PTP=6-pyruvoyltetrahydropterin. AR=aldose reductase. SP=sepiapterin. SR=sepiapterin reductase. BH4 =tetrahydrobiopterin. TrpH=tryptophan hydroxylase. TH=tyrosine hydroxylase. DHPR=dihydropteridine reductase. PCBD=tetrahydrobiopterin-α-carbinolamine. PCD=pterin-4αcarbinolamine dehydratase. qBH₂=(quinonoid) dihydrobiopterin. 5-HTP=5-hydroxytryptophan. L-dopa=levodihydroxyphenylalanine. COMT=catechol-O-methyltransferase. 3-OMD=3-ortho-methyldopa. VLA=vanillactic acid. AADC=aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase. PLP=pyridoxal phosphate. DBH=dopamine β hydroxylase. PNMT=phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase. MAO=monoamine oxidase. AD=aldehyde dehydrogenase. 3-MT=3-methoxytyramine. DOPAC=3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid. 5-HIAA=5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. HVA=homovanillic acid. MHPG=3-methoxy-4-hydroxylphenylglycol. VMA=vanillylmandelic acid.


The paper is very clear about what to:-


Secondary neurotransmitter disorders

Neurotransmitters abnormalities indicative of dopamine or serotonin depletion are becoming increasingly recognized as secondary phenomena in several neurological disorders. Concentrations of HVA and 5-HIAA in CSF in such patients are mostly within the range deemed abnormal for primary neurotransmitter disorders, but generally do not reach the lowest levels.

A secondary reduction in HVA is reported in perinatal asphyxia, disorders of folate metabolism, phenyl ketonuria, Lesch-Nyhan disease, mitochondrial disorders, epilepsy (and infantile spasms), opsoclonus-myoclonus, pontocerebellar hypoplasia, leukodystrophies, Rett’s syndrome, and some neuropsychiatric disorders.  Many patients who have no specific diagnosis but who present with neuromuscular or dystonic symptoms have low HVA concentrations in CSF, which suggests dopaminergic depletion. These patients also often present with dyskinesia, tremor, and eye-movement disorders similar to those seen in many of the primary monoamine neurotransmitter disorders. Cortical atrophy is associated with low levels of 5-HIAA in CSF. Low concentrations of HVA and 5-HIAA have been reported in patients with type 2 pontocerebellar hypoplasia and in a syndrome that involves spontaneous periodic hypothermia and hyperhidrosis.  Whether the latter syndrome is a primary or secondary neurotransmitter disorder is still unclear because the underlying cause is unknown. Patients with neonatal disease onset who have severe motor deficits and abnormalities on brain MRI seem particularly vulnerable to secondary reductions in HVA production. Such disruption of normal brain function is likely to impair biogenic monoamine synthesis, and the resultant neurotransmitter deficiencies in critical periods of neurodevelopment are thought to prevent development of certain brain functions. The possibility of treating such patients with levodopa, 5-hydroxytryptophan, or both should be considered, therefore, to improve brain maturation and neurological outcome.


When you look at autism specifically it is usually 5-HIAA and not HVA that is disturbed.  

Now for two papers by one of our reader Roger’s favourite researchers, Vincent Ramaekers. Ramaekers is one of the specialists for central folate deficiency and even better is a researcher/clinician who replies to my emails. 



Background

Patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may have low brain serotonin concentrations as reflected by the serotonin end-metabolite 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid (5HIAA) in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Methods

We sequenced the candidate genes SLC6A4 (SERT), SLC29A4 (PMAT), and GCHFR (GFRP), followed by whole exome analysis.

Results


The known heterozygous p.Gly56Ala mutation in the SLC6A4 gene was equally found in the ASD and control populations. Using a genetic candidate gene approach, we identified, in 8 patients of a cohort of 248 with ASD, a high prevalence (3.2%) of three novel heterozygous non-synonymous mutations within the SLC29A4 plasma membrane monoamine transporter (PMAT) gene, c.86A > G (p.Asp29Gly) in two patients, c.412G > A (p.Ala138Thr) in five patients, and c.978 T > G (p.Asp326Glu) in one patient. Genome analysis of unaffected parents confirmed that these PMAT mutations were not de novo but inherited mutations.

Expression of mutations PMAT-p.Ala138Thr and p.Asp326Glu in cellulae revealed significant reduced transport uptake activity towards a variety of substrates including serotonin, dopamine, and 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+), while mutation p.Asp29Gly had reduced transport activity only towards MPP+. At least two ASD subjects with either the PMAT-Ala138Thr or the PMAT-Asp326Glu mutation with altered serotonin transport activity had, besides low 5HIAA in CSF, elevated serotonin levels in blood and platelets. Moreover, whole exome sequencing revealed additional alterations in these two ASD patients in mainly serotonin-homeostasis genes compared to their non-affected family members.

Conclusions

Our findings link mutations in SLC29A4 to the ASD population although not invariably to low brain serotonin. PMAT dysfunction is speculated to raise serotonin prenatally, exerting a negative feedback inhibition through serotonin receptors on development of serotonin networks and local serotonin synthesis. Exome sequencing of serotonin homeostasis genes in two families illustrated more insight in aberrant serotonin signaling in ASD.

In this context, we found that isolated low brain serotonin concentration, as reflected by the 5HIAA in the CSF, is associated with PDD-NOS and the functional (heterozygous) c.167G > C (p.G56A) mutation of the serotonin re-uptake transporter gene (SERT/SCL6A4) combined with a homozygous long (L/L) SERT gene-linked polymorphic promoter (5-HTTLPR) region [21]. Moreover, daily treatment with serotonin precursor 5-hydroxytryptophan and aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) inhibitor carbidopaled to clinical improvements and normalization of the 5HIAA levels in the CSF and urine, indicating that the brain serotonin turnover was normalized [22]. In an attempt to gain some insight into the brain serotonin physiology and underlying mechanisms of abnormal brain metabolism, we report in patients with ASD and low brain 5HIAA mutations in the serotonin transporter SCL29A4, an observation that may provide some bases for improving the application of various therapeutic tools.


Whole blood serotonin and platelet serotonin content are increased in about 25 to 30% of the ASD population and their first-degree relatives. Because the fetal blood–brain barrier during pregnancy is not yet fully formed, the fetal brain will be exposed to high serotonin levels, leading through a negative-feedback mechanism to a loss of serotonin neurons and a limited outgrowth of their terminals. This hypothesis has been confirmed by rat studies using the serotonin agonist 5-methoxytryptamine between gestational days 12 until postnatal day 20 [42].



Tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH; EC 1.14.16.4) catalyzes the first rate-limiting step of serotonin biosynthesis by converting l-tryptophan to 5-hydroxytryptophan. Serotonin controls multiple vegetative functions and modulates sensory and alpha-motor neurons at the spinal level. We report on five boys with floppiness in infancy followed by motor delay, development of a hypotonic-ataxic syndrome, learning disability, and short attention span. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis showed a 51 to 65% reduction of the serotonin end-metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5HIAA) compared to age-matched median values. In one out of five patients a low CSF 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (MTHF) was present probably due to the common C677T heterozygous mutation of the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene. Baseline 24-h urinary excretion showed diminished 5HIAA values, not changing after a single oral load with l-tryptophan (50-70 mg/kg), but normalizing after 5-hydroxytryptophan administration (1 mg/kg). Treatment with 5-hydroxytryptophan (4-6 mg/kg) and carbidopa (0.5-1.0 mg/kg) resulted in clinical amelioration and normalization of 5HIAA levels in CSF and urine. In the patient with additional MTHFR heterozygosity, a heterozygous missense mutation within exon 6 (G529A) of the TPH gene caused an exchange of valine by isoleucine at codon 177 (V177I). This has been interpreted as a rare DNA variant because the pedigree analysis did not provide any genotype-phenotype correlation. In the other four patients the TPH gene analysis was normal. In conclusion, this new neurodevelopmental syndrome responsive to treatment with 5-hydroxytryptophan and carbidopa might result from an overall reduced capacity of serotonin production due to a TPH gene regulatory defect, unknown factors inactivating the TPH enzyme, or selective loss of serotonergic neurons.


Carbidopa is a drug given to people with Parkinson's disease in order to inhibit peripheral metabolism of levodopa. This property is significant in that it allows a greater proportion of peripheral levodopa to cross the blood–brain barrier for central nervous system effect.

L-DOPA/levodopa is the precursor to the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline) collectively known as catecholamines. Furthermore, L-DOPA itself mediates neurotrophic factor release by the brain and CNS. As a drug, it is used in the clinical treatment of Parkinson's disease.



Abstract

Based upon the hypothesis that brain monoamine metabolism is disorganized in some children with an autistic disorder, we tried low dose levodopa therapy (0.5 mg/kg/day) proposed by Segawa, et al. We treated 20 patients with an autistic disorder diagnosed according to DSM-IV, and evaluated the effectiveness. A double blind cross over method was applied in this study because of the small number of patients. Drug effects were observed carefully by the psychologists and pediatric neurologists using an evaluation sheet consisting of twenty items. No significant effectiveness was observed in this study, although four cases (20%) showed some improvement. In conclusion, administration of low dose levodopa to autistic children resulted in no clear clinical improvements of autistic symptoms.




A team led by Wen-Hann Tan,  of the Genetics Program at Children’s, is completing a phase I clinical trial examining the safety and dosing of levodopa, a drug commonly used for Parkinson disease, in patients with Angelman syndrome. The results will inform a planned phase II treatment trial, to be conducted in collaboration with University of California San Francisco, University of California San Diego, Vanderbilt University, Baylor College of Medicine and Greenwood Genetic Center. [For more information on Angelman research and events, check out this Facebook page.]

Research suggests that levodopa may increase the activity of an important brain enzyme known as CaMKII, which is involved in learning and memory, and that may be decreased in Angelman syndrome. In a mouse model of Angelman syndrome, low activity of CaMKII is associated with neurologic defects. Levodopa reverses the chemical modification that underlies decreased CaMKII activity. When this same modification is reversed in mice by genetic means, they show improvement in neurologic deficits, and it’s hoped that levodopa can do the same in humans.

Parkinson's disease

We saw in an earlier post that people with Down Syndrome are prone to early onset Alzheimer’s. In the case of lack of dopamine the risk might be towards Parkinson's disease (PD). 

There was a recent post on PANS/PANDAS/Tourette’s which like PD results from dysfunction in the basal ganglia region of the brain.

The basal ganglia, a group of brain structures innervated by the dopaminergic system, are the most seriously affected brain areas in PD. The main pathological characteristic of PD is cell death in the substantia nigra, where greatly reduced activity of dopamine-secreting cells caused by cell death.

When a decision is made to perform a particular action, inhibition is reduced for the required motor system, thereby releasing it for activation. Dopamine acts to facilitate this release of inhibition, so high levels of dopamine function tend to promote motor activity, while low levels of dopamine function, such as occur in PD, demand greater exertions of effort for any given movement. Thus, the net effect of dopamine depletion is to produce hypokinesia, an overall reduction in motor output. Drugs that are used to treat PD, conversely, may produce excessive dopamine activity, allowing motor systems to be activated at inappropriate times and thereby producing dyskinesias.

The drugs used in PD only treat some of the symptoms and are not curative, but do offer effective ways to increase dopamine levels.



High rates of Parkinsonism in adults with autism? Or is it partly drug-induced Parkinsonism


There is a study suggesting high rates of Parkinsonism in adults with autism.  I think some of this is more likely to be drug-induced Parkinsonism, either caused by currently taken drugs, or those taken in earlier years, which is not mentioned in the study. 



Background

While it is now recognized that autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is typically a life-long condition, there exist only a handful of systematic studies on middle-aged and older adults with this condition.
           Methods

We first performed a structured examination of parkinsonian motor signs in a hypothesis-generating, pilot study (study I) of 19 adults with ASD over 49 years of age. Observing high rates of parkinsonism in those off atypical neuroleptics (2/12, 17 %) in comparison to published population rates for Parkinson’s disease and parkinsonism, we examined a second sample of 37 adults with ASD, over 39 years of age, using a structured neurological assessment for parkinsonism.
Results
Twelve of the 37 subjects (32 %) met the diagnostic criteria for parkinsonism; however, of these, 29 subjects were on atypical neuroleptics, complicating interpretation of the findings. Two of eight (25 %) subjects not taking atypical neuroleptic medications met the criteria for parkinsonism. Combining subjects who were not currently taking atypical neuroleptic medications, across both studies, we conservatively classified 4/20 (20 %) with parkinsonism.
Conclusions
We find a high frequency of parkinsonism among ASD individuals older than 39 years. If high rates of parkinsonism and potentially Parkinson’s disease are confirmed in subsequent studies of ASD, this observation has important implications for understanding the neurobiology of autism and treatment of manifestations in older adults. Given the prevalence of autism in school-age children, the recognition of its life-long natural history, and the recognition of the aging of western societies, these findings also support the importance of further systematic study of other aspects of older adults with autism.



Drug induced Parkinsonism


Any drug that blocks the action of dopamine (referred to as a dopamine antagonist) is likely to cause parkinsonism. Drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders such as behaviour disturbances in people with dementia, known as neuroleptic drugs, are possibly the major cause of drug-induced parkinsonism worldwide. Parkinsonism can occur from the use of any of the various classes of neuroleptics.
The atypical neuroleptics – clozapine (Clozaril) and quetiapine (Seroquel), and to a lesser extent olanzapine (Zyprexa) and risperidone (Risperdal) – appear to have a lower incidence of extrapyramidal side effects, including parkinsonism. These drugs are generally best avoided by people with Parkinson’s, although some may be used by specialists to treat symptoms such as hallucinations occurring with Parkinson’s.
For people with Parkinson’s, anti-sickness drugs such as domperidone (Motilium) or ondansetron (Zofran) are the drugs of choice for nausea and vomiting.
As well as neuroleptics, some other drugs can cause drug-induced parkinsonism. These include some medications for dizziness and nausea such as prochlorperazine (Stemetil); and metoclopromide (Maxalon), which is used to stop sickness and in the treatment of indigestion.
Calcium channel blocking drugs used to treat high blood pressure, abnormal heart rhythm, angina pectoris, panic attacks, manic depression and migraine may occasionally cause drug-induced parkinsonism. Calcium channel blocking drugs are, however, widely used to treat angina and high blood pressure, and it is important to note that most common agents in clinical use probably do not have this side effect. These drugs should never be stopped abruptly without discussion with your doctor.
A number of other agents have been reported to cause drug-induced parkinsonism, but clear proof of cause and effect is often lacking. Amiodarone, used to treat heart problems, causes tremor and some people have been reported to develop Parkinson’s-like symptoms. Sodium valproate, used to treat epilepsy, and lithium, used in depression, both commonly cause tremor which may be mistaken for Parkinson’s.


Dopamine Receptors vs Dopamine as Dysfunctions 

We saw in great detail with the neurotransmitter GABA that the autism dysfunctions are usually related to the function and make-up of the neurotransmitter receptors, rather than the amount of GABA itself. Targeting these dysfunctions does indeed deliver results for many people with autism and Asperger’s.

Potentially this might be the case with dopamine, but it looks much less likely.

I did look at the following paper which seeks to link the genes of dopamine receptors (DRD1, DRD2, DRD3, DRD4, DRD5), dopamine-synthesizing enzyme DDC, dopamine transporter (DAT) and dopamine-catabolizing enzymes COMT and MAO to the several hundred known autism genes.

Using bioinformatics, in some they found a link and in others they did not.

The graphic below looks nice, but I am not sure it tells us much useful.  To me it looks much better to go direct to the autism gene and then see how to selectively modulate it. I do not think you can assume that the associated dopamine gene/receptor is the unifying problem across dysfunctional autism genes.  It would be great if it was.  




Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a debilitating brain illness causing social deficits, delayed development and repetitive behaviors. ASD is a heritable neurodevelopmental disorder with poorly understood and complex etiology. The central dopaminergic system is strongly implicated in ASD pathogenesis.

Genes encoding various elements of this system (including dopamine receptors, the dopamine transporter or enzymes of synthesis and catabolism) have been linked to ASD. Here, we comprehensively evaluate known molecular interactors of dopaminergic genes, and identify their potential molecular partners within up/down-steam signaling pathways associated with dopamine. These in silico analyses allowed us to construct a map of molecular pathways, regulated by dopamine and involved in ASD. Clustering these pathways reveals groups of genes associated with dopamine metabolism, encoding proteins that control dopamine neurotransmission, cytoskeletal processes, synaptic release, Ca2+ signaling, as well as the adenosine, glutamatergic and gamma-aminobutyric systems. Overall, our analyses emphasize the important role of the dopaminergic system in ASD, and implicate several cellular signaling processes in its pathogenesis.










Fig. 3. Reconstruction of biomolecular pathways related to dopaminergic genes associated with ASD (also see Fig. 2 and Table 2 for details). Known biological interactions between protein products of various genes are shown as complexes or denoted by arrows (sharp – activation, dull – inhibition). Proteins encoded by genes associated with ASD are marked with red (other colors are used here for illustration purposes only, to better distinguish visually between multiple different proteins within the dopaminergic pathways). Clustering of proteins into distinct functional groups is shown by dashed lines.


The strongest evidence for the role of dopamine genes in neuropsychiatric disorders is not in schizophrenia or autism, but in ADHD. As you can see in the paper below, even there the association is weak.


Discussion

Although twin studies demonstrate that ADHD is a highly heritable condition, molecular genetic studies suggest that the genetic architecture of ADHD is complex. The handful of genome-wide scans that have been conducted thus far show divergent findings and are, therefore, not conclusive. Similarly, many of the candidate genes reviewed here (i.e. DBH, MAOA, SLC6A2, TPH-2, SLC6A4, CHRNA4, GRIN2A) are theoretically compelling from a neurobiological systems perspective, but available data are sparse and inconsistent. However, candidate gene studies of ADHD have produced substantial evidence implicating several genes in the etiology of the disorder. The literature published since recent meta-analyses is particularly supportive for a role of the genes coding for DRD4, DRD5, SLC6A3, SNAP-25, and HTR1B in the etiology of ADHD.

Yet, even these associations are small and consistent with the idea that the genetic vulnerability to ADHD is mediated by many genes of small effect.

Conclusion

In the ideal world you would take a sample of spinal fluid and measure 5-HIAA, to look for low brain serotonin and measure HVA for low brain dopamine.

For low serotonin you would give 5-HTP, with Dr Ramaekers suggesting 1mg/kg.

For low dopamine you would give levodopa or carbidopa.

In the real world even blood draws can be problematic so most people will never have their spinal fluid analyzed. Perhaps one day in the future this will be standard practice after an autism diagnosis, with numerous test being run at the same time and justifying this invasive procedure.   Many blood tests tell you little about brain disorders because the blood brain barrier means that the levels outside the brain will be completely different to those inside the brain. Measuring spinal fluid should be a good proxy for inside the brain.

The research suggests that 1mg/kg of 5-HT could have a long term beneficial effect, particularly if given from a very early age, in those with low serotonin in their brains, which is a large group of autism.

There are 5 types of dopamine receptors and in some genetic disorders the receptors’ response can be up/down regulated.  That would trigger a chain reaction with the non dopamine neurotransmitter receptors that are known to interact with that type of dopamine receptor.


There are associations between some autism genes and some dopamine genes, but it looks much more fruitful to target the autism genes themselves.

Avoid drug induced Parkinson’s Disease and other drug induced disorders, by very selective use of drugs.